Introduction
Summary of the Book Dialectic of Enlightenment by Max Horkheimer & Theodor W. Adorno. Before moving forward, let’s take a quick look at the book. Imagine picking up a storybook that claims to hold the key to breaking ancient chains of ignorance and fear. Its authors once promised a future shaped by free thought, fairness, and endless improvement. Now, fast-forward centuries later. You open your eyes to a reality where modern societies overflow with dazzling technologies, clever experts, and polished media. Yet, lurking in the background are subtle pressures, hidden manipulations, and fresh strains of inequality. This narrative is what Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno uncovered in Dialectic of Enlightenment. They revealed how the Enlightenment’s proud banner of reason and progress could be twisted into a new kind of myth—one that blinds rather than enlightens. As you embark on this journey, brace yourself for a deeper look behind the curtain, where truth’s delicate shape emerges through constant questioning and courageous reflection.
Chapter 1: How Enlightenment’s Bright Dreams Became Strange Shadows Cast Across Our Modern Minds.
The Enlightenment, a grand intellectual movement emerging in 18th-century Europe, promised humanity a path to progress by casting aside old myths, superstitions, and traditions. It championed reason, logic, and scientific inquiry as the primary tools for building a more equal, just, and enlightened world. Thinkers of that era were tired of bowing before kings, priests, and irrational beliefs. They believed that by embracing critical thinking and rigorous questioning, human beings could break free from ignorance and tyranny. But as centuries passed, scholars like Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno noticed that something had gone terribly wrong. The torch of reason that was supposed to guide us toward true freedom seemed to have led us into new forms of bondage. Instead of soaring toward a horizon of perfect knowledge and fairness, we stumbled into fresh patterns of oppression and social control.
Horkheimer and Adorno, two brilliant German intellectuals working in the dark and tumultuous mid-20th century, dared to ask unsettling questions. They looked at the world around them—a world scarred by war, extreme ideologies, and mass propaganda—and wondered why the Enlightenment’s lofty dreams had not protected humanity from brutal regimes and clever manipulations. If reason was supposed to free us, why did it also create conditions for horrific events like the Holocaust or the rigid totalitarian states that crushed individuality and dissent? These scholars argued that the Enlightenment’s instruments—rationality, science, and progress—had grown twisted. Rather than serving human betterment, they had become tools to dominate nature, people, and even thought itself. Their groundbreaking work, Dialectic of Enlightenment, revealed how Enlightenment ideals had transformed into myths of their own, subtly chaining minds instead of liberating them.
To understand how this could happen, we must recognize that Enlightenment thinkers believed reason could explain and order everything. The universe, in their eyes, resembled a clockwork mechanism awaiting human understanding. Nature was a puzzle to be solved, a resource to be harvested, and society was an arrangement that could be perfected through logical planning. However, Horkheimer and Adorno showed that once everything is viewed through the lens of efficiency and measurable output, people and nature alike become mere objects. Reducing all existence to logic and function means losing sight of wonder, mystery, empathy, and spiritual depth. Slowly, the human spirit is cornered into a set of dry calculations. Such a worldview paves the way for mass manipulation since people conditioned to think mechanically can be molded into compliant followers who accept domination as normal.
Their startling insight was that Enlightenment thinking had not only undermined old myths; it had slyly installed a new one: the myth of pure reason. This new myth hides the truth that human rationality is never neutral, never floating above social interests. Instead, reason often ends up serving those with power, wealth, or influence. Horkheimer and Adorno’s critique reveals that this supposedly clear-sighted rationality can mask intentions of control behind a façade of progress and logic. When society treats scientific expertise as unquestionable or pretends that technology will solve all problems without considering human values, it falls into a trap. The ironies of the Enlightenment are as vast as they are unsettling. Our journey will explore how reason turned against its noble aims, how culture became a tool of subjection, and how we might still seek genuine freedom.
Chapter 2: When Promises of Progress Drifted into Unseen Corridors of Confusion and Control.
The Enlightenment once glowed with promises: liberated individuals pursuing knowledge freely, social reforms guided by rational debate, and a sense that humanity marched steadily toward a better future. Prominent figures like Kant, Voltaire, and Diderot insisted that if we questioned authority, valued scientific truths, and trusted our capacity to think, society would reach unprecedented heights. Faith in progress became a cornerstone. Improving laws, expanding education, and harnessing technology seemed destined to lift everyone’s well-being. Yet, as Horkheimer and Adorno later emphasized, these sincere dreams carried hidden weaknesses. The belief that reason could conquer any obstacle led to an overconfidence that everything was solvable by logic alone. By assuming human beings would inevitably become more just and wise simply through rational growth, Enlightenment thinkers underestimated how cunning power structures could bend logic to their own advantage.
This overconfidence enabled new forms of control to masquerade as progress. For example, industrialization—born of rational planning and scientific innovation—did indeed boost production and create wealth. But it also entrenched exploitative labor conditions and deepened class divides. Factories were efficient, but they turned people into replaceable parts. Colonial expansions relied on scientific justifications of civilizing missions that belittled non-European cultures. Under the Enlightenment’s banner, rational inquiry became a tool to classify, categorize, and sometimes dehumanize. The ideal of free, equal individuals slowly gave way to societies where many remained voiceless and subservient. Over time, reason’s shining promise revealed cracks: it could be twisted to serve profits, state power, or narrow interests rather than genuine human flourishing. This tension between lofty ideals and harsh realities laid the groundwork for Adorno and Horkheimer’s critical re-examination.
Horkheimer and Adorno argued that the Enlightenment’s original intention—to expose and dispel myths—irony turned inward. Reason tried to eradicate old superstitions, but in doing so, it started spinning its own myth: the unquestioned supremacy of rational thought. Like a candle that casts a shadow behind it, reason illuminated some aspects of life while darkening others. Rational thought, when worshipped as absolute, can become narrow and exclude everything that cannot be neatly measured, predicted, or controlled. This leaves behind compassion, imagination, and moral reflection as afterthoughts. Without these qualities, societies risk breeding cold calculation over genuine care, allowing cunning leaders or systems to manipulate people through seemingly logical methods.
So, the Enlightenment’s beautiful promises—personal freedom, social equality, and wise governance—began to drift. Instead of wholeheartedly rejecting the Enlightenment, Horkheimer and Adorno urge us to acknowledge its complexity. The dream of using reason to better human life remains inspiring, but we must recognize how reason can be corrupted. Understanding this shift sets the stage for grasping why even democratic societies sometimes replicate oppressive patterns, or why the march of progress often leaves behind those who don’t fit the prevailing logic. The struggle to keep Enlightenment promises honest continues. It requires looking hard at how knowledge is produced, who controls it, and whose interests it serves. Only by facing these uncomfortable truths can we hope to recover reason’s original emancipatory potential without falling prey to its shadowy distortions.
Chapter 3: Twisted Paths of Rationality Leading Toward Silent Forms of Social Domination.
Among the most jolting claims by Horkheimer and Adorno was the idea that totalitarian regimes and authoritarian movements were not bizarre accidents but logical outcomes of certain Enlightenment tendencies. If everything could be rationalized, then individual dignity, pluralism, and moral debate could be sacrificed in favor of efficiency and order. The extreme horrors of the 20th century—like Nazi Germany—exemplified what happens when reason is placed in the service of ruthless power. These regimes showcased how the cold application of technical logic could organize mass murder, manipulate populations through propaganda, and enforce rigid conformity. Enlightenment’s tools—statistics, scientific management, disciplined bureaucracy—were mobilized to commit inhuman acts under a cloak of necessity and rational organization. The chilling lesson is that reason, unanchored from empathy and moral values, can easily become a monstrous instrument.
This logic-driven subjugation does not only emerge in blatant dictatorships. Democratic societies also carry subtle patterns of domination fed by rational systems. The world of advertising, entertainment, and mass media—what Adorno and Horkheimer called the culture industry—works by producing uniform, carefully packaged messages that shape people’s desires and thoughts. Consumers, believing they exercise free choice, are nudged and guided through cunning psychological appeals. Rational analysis of audience preferences turns into a technique of controlling what people think they want. The public, bombarded by carefully engineered content, may not feel overtly forced, but slowly grows accustomed to viewing existence through a narrow lens defined by commercial interests and shallow spectacles. Beneath the surface of freedom lies an intricate network of rational manipulation shaping how we see ourselves and our place in society.
What might be even more unsettling is how reason infiltrates everyday life, directing how we learn, work, and interact without our conscious consent. The educational systems often prioritize measurable outcomes, standard tests, and quantifiable performances over nurturing independent thinking, creativity, or ethical reasoning. Workplaces turn to data-driven performance evaluations and efficiency metrics that reduce complex human efforts to mere numbers. Gradually, a subtle but powerful message emerges: if it cannot be easily measured, it must not matter. Such a mindset sidelines compassion, art, spirituality, and moral deliberation as irrelevant or impractical. This quiet erosion happens not because someone cackles in a dark room plotting control, but because an overarching logic demands everything fit neat, predictable patterns.
In short, the Enlightenment’s rational tools, originally meant to deliver justice and fairness, can be harnessed by economic or political forces to maintain hierarchies. This dynamic does not require brute force or overt censorship; it depends instead on society’s acceptance of rational methods as inherently good and unbiased. When people forget that reason is a human construction subject to context, power, and hidden interests, they become vulnerable. They may accept oppressive systems simply because these systems appear logical or efficient. The transformation of Enlightenment’s rationality into subtle domination calls us to reconsider what rational means and whose interests it protects. If we want a freer, more equitable world, we must confront the unsettling truth that reason alone, without compassion and critical self-awareness, can create forms of bondage nearly invisible to the naked eye.
Chapter 4: Unmasking the Myth of Unquestioned Progress, Technology, and Controlled Desires.
As Horkheimer and Adorno urged, we must look beyond the surface of progress. The modern world is filled with marvels: digital communication connects us instantly across the globe; medical advances tackle diseases once thought unstoppable; abundant entertainment options stream at our fingertips. Yet, all these wonders rest on frameworks shaped by market forces, corporate interests, and intricate power relations. The myth of pure progress suggests that humanity marches forward steadily. However, if we scratch beneath the surface, we find that not all progress is equal. Underneath shiny gadgets, there are supply chains involving exploited workers and ecological damage. Behind the promise of innovation lurk attempts to corner markets and wield power. Horkheimer and Adorno remind us that we must ask: progress for whom, progress measured how, and at what human or environmental cost?
To understand how this myth operates, consider how technology often feels neutral. A smartphone is just a tool, right? But who designs these tools, who profits from them, and what assumptions guide their functionality? The apps that shape our attention and track our interests are guided by commercial logic: they want to keep us glued, clicking, and buying. Rational data analysis powers algorithms that know our weaknesses and temptations, gently steering our consumption patterns. We may believe we’re making free choices, but subtle manipulations nestle inside these digital systems. Adorno and Horkheimer might argue that beneath this everyday convenience, a form of rational control thrives. It does not bludgeon us into submission; it seduces us, whispering that we are free agents when, in reality, we move along predetermined paths carefully laid out by hidden rational calculations.
The culture industry, a concept these thinkers coined, involves all mass-produced cultural products—films, music, advertisements—that reinforce the status quo. Far from being trivial entertainment, these products are carefully crafted to maintain existing social orders. They rely on reasoned marketing strategies, psychological insights, and precise targeting. They reduce art into standard forms, ensuring audiences develop predictable tastes and expectations. In this climate, creativity and true individuality struggle to breathe. Genuine art, which challenges norms and stirs new thoughts, often gets sidelined by commercial formulas. Thus, the rational systems that decide what sells and what doesn’t funnel human expression into neat molds. This cultural flattening subtly guides us to accept the world as it is, rather than imagining that it could be rearranged in kinder, more human-oriented ways.
By revealing the myth of progress and how technology can be weaponized to shape desires, Horkheimer and Adorno push us to think critically about what we call advancement. True improvement should liberate human potential, nurture empathy, and expand horizons. But when rational structures serve only market logic or political gain, progress becomes distorted. Our sense of what is normal or inevitable might itself be a careful construction designed to keep us compliant. This realization can feel disheartening. Yet, knowing how rational myths work frees our minds. It invites us to question the rules, to see patterns behind everyday conveniences, and to ask whether the so-called future we are rushing toward is genuinely ours—or if it’s crafted by forces using Enlightenment’s tools to limit, rather than enhance, our collective destiny.
Chapter 5: The Puzzling Faces of Freedom as Reason Battles with Human Values.
If reason must be our guide, then how do we protect ourselves from its darker side? Horkheimer and Adorno never claimed that reason, science, or Enlightenment thinking were inherently evil. Instead, they highlighted how these forces could be twisted to serve domination when detached from moral reflection and human-centered values. Recognizing this tension urges us to rethink freedom. We might believe that rational societies guarantee freedom, but if freedom becomes defined purely by the marketplace or official policies, we risk confusing personal choices with genuine autonomy. True freedom should include the ability to question assumptions, imagine alternatives, and nurture an inner life that values compassion, beauty, and justice alongside efficiency and logic.
Under modern rational systems, many people experience a quiet discontent. They feel pressured to fit into predefined roles: consumer, worker, voter, or spectator. Individual authenticity becomes harder to maintain when mass media and cultural industries standardize desires and values. It’s easy to mistake the freedom to select from an array of nearly identical options for true freedom. But real liberation means breaking the chains of false needs, resisting the subtle pressure to conform, and venturing beyond what seems immediately profitable or practical. The Enlightenment dream promised that reason would help us become self-determining beings. To fulfill that promise, we must reclaim rationality and tie it back to empathy, imagination, and moral courage. Only then can reason guide us without imprisoning us in a shiny yet soulless cage.
Horkheimer and Adorno prompt us to reflect on the stories we tell ourselves. If we treat science and logic as neutral, purely objective platforms, we miss how they too are rooted in human contexts—political struggles, economic motives, cultural biases. Within this complexity, we can still find hope. Recognizing the constructed nature of knowledge and values means we can change them. Just as oppressive structures were built by human hands, they can be deconstructed. We can learn to shape rational systems that respect human dignity, protect the vulnerable, and restore harmony with nature. The road ahead demands courage because it involves questioning deeply held beliefs and stepping outside comfort zones.
This questioning spirit can feel risky. After all, myths bring comfort, and rationalized illusions offer easy explanations. But if we trust our ability to think critically, to empathize, and to imagine alternative futures, we can move beyond simply accepting what’s handed to us. The call is not to reject reason but to humanize it. This means bringing moral insight, historical understanding, and heartfelt concern into our rational frameworks. Rather than blind faith in efficiency or measurement, we can seek wisdom that integrates complex human needs. By doing so, we harness the Enlightenment’s original impetus to liberate rather than dominate. In this understanding, reason transforms from a mere tool of control into a beacon guiding us toward genuinely shared prosperity, cultural richness, and fair social arrangements—if we dare to look behind the masks reason sometimes wears.
Chapter 6: Secrets of the Introversion of Sacrifice as Capitalism Reshapes Our Inner Worlds.
Another subtle concept that Horkheimer and Adorno introduce is the introversion of sacrifice. Traditionally, sacrifice was a communal act, visible and recognized, like offering a portion of harvest or livestock to appease divine forces or strengthen community bonds. In modern capitalist societies, sacrifice has not disappeared but moved inside individuals, often without our full awareness. We no longer make grand ritual offerings; instead, we sacrifice our time, desires, and personal dreams to meet ever-growing demands of work, success, and social expectations. This shift is introverted because the burden falls on our own shoulders. We police ourselves, adapt our behaviors, and trim our aspirations, not because someone is yelling at us, but because the economic and cultural system gently pushes us toward certain goals—productivity, competition, and endless consumption.
This inward turn of sacrifice is tied to reason’s misuse. The logic of markets treats everyone as a unit of labor, a potential consumer, or a resource to be optimized. We learn to internalize this logic: we feel guilty if we are not productive enough, we measure our worth by our job title, and we believe that buying certain products will define our identity. This sacrifice, though silent, is profound. Instead of giving away a physical offering, we give away precious hours of life, creativity, emotional well-being, and relationships. Underlying this process is an assumption that rational market principles know best how to distribute rewards and punishments. It’s a quiet enforcement mechanism where no dictator points a gun at us; rather, we point it at ourselves, driven by the internalized logic that endless striving is good.
Horkheimer and Adorno’s insight is that this internalized sacrifice helps maintain social hierarchies. Those who succeed under this system often do so by climbing on the sacrifices of others. For instance, low-wage workers prop up industries that yield profits for a few. The environment gets sacrificed to fuel production and satisfy artificial demands. Students sacrifice their passions to fit career paths that the job market deems valuable. All these patterns stem from rational calculations about cost, benefit, and efficiency. The introversion of sacrifice normalizes these imbalances. If everyone believes that self-sacrifice is virtuous, moral, and logical, then challenging the system looks irrational. Thus, what once might have been questioned openly—Why are we doing this?—becomes a silent, internal struggle that doesn’t break the surface.
But awareness is the first step to resistance. Realizing that sacrifice has moved inward allows us to question why we accept certain trade-offs. We might ask: Are we working long hours and abandoning personal growth because we truly want to, or because the system demands it? Do we buy products for genuine enjoyment or to fill emptiness planted by clever advertising? Recognizing this subtle form of domination can inspire us to seek a different balance. Perhaps we can reclaim time for leisure, nature, friendships, or artistic pursuits. By exposing how reason and market logic rationalize these internal sacrifices as normal, we gain the courage to resist. Instead of silently surrendering our lives piece by piece, we can push back and insist that reason serve human happiness, not bury it under layers of imposed necessity.
Chapter 7: Recognizing the Myth in Science and Expertise to Break the Spell.
Horkheimer and Adorno insisted that no form of knowledge is truly neutral. Science, which Enlightenment thinkers adored as the key to unlocking nature’s secrets, is not an untouchable temple of truth. Science is made by humans, financed by institutions, and guided by cultural priorities. When we treat scientists as priests of absolute certainty, we risk falling into a modern superstition, one that places blind faith in experts without asking who funds their research, which questions they choose to investigate, or how their findings are used. The authors warn that if we trust reason without scrutiny, we hand over enormous power to those who claim to know best. This power can then be leveraged to influence policy, shape public opinion, and maintain structures that favor certain groups over others.
Consider how certain scientific narratives have justified cruel policies in history. Claims about biological superiority fueled racist ideologies, while technocratic logic shaped economic models that brushed aside human well-being. If we assume that objective data is beyond criticism, we allow flawed or biased interpretations to guide decisions. This does not mean abandoning science—far from it. Good scientific inquiry humbly acknowledges uncertainty, invites peer review, and welcomes diverse perspectives. But when science is tied too closely to profit motives, political agendas, or rigid worldviews, it ceases to be a tool for understanding truth and becomes a mechanism for enforcing particular outcomes. Recognizing this danger can prevent us from mistaking a scientist’s white coat for a wizard’s robe. We must learn to engage with knowledge critically, treating it as a living conversation rather than a final decree.
This critical stance extends to technology and expertise as well. The engineers who design surveillance systems or the economists who draft policies are also shaped by incentives, cultural norms, and personal biases. When societies treat these experts as infallible, they disempower citizens from asking hard questions. If a new technology erodes privacy, is it acceptable simply because it is efficient? If an economic policy leaves communities impoverished, can we call it rational just because it appears logically consistent on paper? By seeing science, technology, and expertise as human endeavors—always partial, often complicated—we empower ourselves to refuse obedience when facts are used to justify harm. We learn to see through the illusion that rational data alone can solve moral problems or guarantee fairness.
Horkheimer and Adorno’s message is not to distrust every expert or dismiss scientific methods. Instead, they want us to be cautious, reflective participants in the world of knowledge. True enlightenment involves peering behind the curtain, asking: Who benefits from this research? Whose voices are absent in this discussion? Have we considered the social and ethical implications of these findings? Once we embrace that science and expertise are part of our human tapestry—messy, evolving, and laden with values—we no longer feel compelled to accept them blindly. We can learn to appreciate scientific advancements without allowing them to dictate our moral compass. Freeing ourselves from the myth of pure objectivity allows us to rebuild rational inquiry on more honest terms, forging a world where knowledge is a shared resource, not a sacred tool of domination.
Chapter 8: Embracing Critical Reflection and Collective Action to Reclaim Enlightenment’s True Promise.
Despite the dark shadows described, Horkheimer and Adorno’s vision is not one of hopelessness. Their critique is a catalyst meant to awaken us from intellectual slumber. It encourages us to realize that we are not mere pawns in a grand rational machine; we have agency and the power to change course. If reason has been hijacked to serve narrow interests, we can reclaim it. To do so, we must be courageous enough to question assumptions, both in public arenas and inside our own minds. This means daring to disagree when experts demand compliance without explanation. It means resisting cultural products that reduce our imagination to clichés. It means seeing ourselves not as isolated individuals competing for survival but as members of a human community with shared stakes and responsibilities.
Collective action emerges as a potential remedy. If solitary voices can be silenced or dismissed, communities can amplify one another’s concerns. Groups of people can challenge unfair policies, call out biased research, and advocate for different measures of prosperity and success. Instead of letting reason serve profits or power, we can redirect it toward social justice, sustainability, and mutual respect. We might imagine schools that value creativity as much as test scores, economies that prioritize well-being over endless growth, and technologies designed with ethics in mind. None of this is easy; it requires patience, cooperation, and a willingness to confront uncomfortable truths about our current path. Yet the very essence of Enlightenment—critical inquiry—demands that we never stop seeking better ways to live.
We need not abandon the Enlightenment’s original ideals: freedom, equality, and the belief that understanding can improve human life. Instead, we can refine them. Recognize that reason, untethered from empathy and conscience, can run amok. Know that progress, stripped of ethical reflection, can leave devastation in its wake. Accept that knowledge, wielded carelessly, can imprison as easily as it can enlighten. Armed with these insights, we can transform how we learn, produce, and govern. Imagine an Enlightenment 2.0, where rational thinking walks hand in hand with compassion, historical awareness, and humility. In this vision, no single worldview or metric dominates; multiple voices collaborate, test ideas, and revise strategies, always keeping human dignity at the center.
Horkheimer and Adorno’s work is a solemn warning and a stirring invitation. It shows that even our most cherished intellectual traditions can become blind spots if we do not re-examine them. Yet it also encourages us to believe in our capacity to break free from hidden constraints. We can become the generation that revitalizes reason, dismantles oppressive systems, and unleashes human creativity. To do so, we must step beyond passive acceptance and embrace the ongoing task of critical thinking. By acknowledging that Enlightenment’s torch can cast strange shadows, we choose to guide it more wisely. This choice—to reflect, question, and reimagine—is what can ultimately return Enlightenment’s promise to its rightful place: as a force of genuine liberation, illuminating paths to a world more caring, just, and profoundly human.
All about the Book
Explore the profound critiques of modernity in ‘Dialectic of Enlightenment’ by Horkheimer and Adorno. This foundational text examines how reason can lead to domination, challenging readers to rethink enlightenment and its implications for contemporary society.
Max Horkheimer and Theodor W. Adorno were influential German philosophers and social theorists whose work laid the groundwork for critical theory and cultural criticism in the 20th century.
Sociologists, Philosophers, Cultural Critics, Political Scientists, Psychologists
Reading Philosophy, Exploring Social Theory, Critiquing Art and Culture, Engaging in Political Activism, Studying History
Consumerism, Cultural Alienation, Authoritarianism, The Role of Enlightenment in Society
Enlightenment, understood as the emancipation of man from fear and superstition, is also the means by which man has enslaved himself.
Slavoj Žižek, Cornel West, Angela Davis
The Frankfurt School Legacy Award, The International Herbert Marcuse Award, The Hans Martin Schönfeld Award
1. How does reason lead to societal domination and control? #2. What role does culture play in modern enlightenment thinking? #3. Can enlightenment truly liberate humanity from oppression? #4. How do myths persist within enlightened rational thought? #5. What is the relationship between power and knowledge today? #6. How does the culture industry shape our perceptions? #7. Are individuals truly free in an enlightened society? #8. What critiques do Horkheimer and Adorno offer capitalism? #9. How does the dialectic reveal contradictions in society? #10. Can critical theory provoke real social change effectively? #11. How do enlightenment ideals influence contemporary ethics? #12. In what ways is art a form of resistance? #13. How does consumer culture impact human autonomy? #14. What does it mean to achieve true enlightenment today? #15. How are reason and authority intertwined in modern life? #16. Can enlightenment coexist with emotional and ethical values? #17. What challenges arise from dialectical thinking in society? #18. How might mass media distort critical thought processes? #19. What insights do these philosophers offer for political engagement? #20. How can we apply their theories to understand current events?
Dialectic of Enlightenment, Max Horkheimer, Theodor W. Adorno, critical theory, philosophy of enlightenment, social theory, cultural critique, modernity and enlightenment, Frankfurt School, classical philosophy, critical analysis, social change
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