Introduction
Summary of the book Tsunami by James Goff and Walter Dudley. Before moving forward, let’s briefly explore the core idea of the book. Imagine standing on a serene beach as the world seems calm and ordinary, not knowing that, beneath the distant waves, immense forces are brewing. In a matter of minutes, this peaceful scene could transform into a race for survival against a towering wall of water. Throughout history, tsunamis have tested human endurance, shattering coastal life and leaving permanent marks in both the landscape and our collective memory. By listening to ancient stories, studying geological clues, and observing the lessons from recent disasters, we are piecing together a clearer picture of these colossal waves. At the same time, we’re improving warning systems, promoting life-saving education, and preparing communities for what might come tomorrow. Though tsunamis remain unpredictable and often mysterious, understanding their origins, heeding old wisdom, embracing new research, and practicing sound preparedness can empower us. This journey through the realms of tsunamis opens the door to safety and informed resilience.
Chapter 1: Unraveling the Tremendous Forces That Create Towering Oceanic Tsunami Waves Across Our Planet.
Tsunamis are not just ordinary waves; they are powerful, towering surges of water often born from Earth’s own internal stresses. Unlike the gentle swells you might see lapping at a beach, these waves can rise to devastating heights, racing across oceans at the speed of commercial airplanes. To understand where they come from, we need to look far beneath the surface. The Earth’s crust consists of massive moving slabs of rock called tectonic plates. These plates constantly push and pull against one another, sometimes slipping violently along fault lines. In that moment of abrupt movement, the seafloor can suddenly shift upward or downward, forcing the overlying water to rise or dip. This disturbance can travel outward in all directions as a series of deadly waves. A tsunami might start as a barely noticeable ripple in the deep sea, yet as it approaches shallow coastal areas, it can grow into walls of water that topple buildings, uproot trees, and sweep entire communities away.
Though large earthquakes are the most common culprits behind oceanic tsunamis, they are not the only triggers. Sometimes, violent volcanic eruptions beneath the sea surface can displace enough water to spawn tremendous waves. In other cases, huge underwater landslides occur along steep continental slopes, causing the ocean above to surge into motion. Even meteorite impacts, although extremely rare in modern times, could push aside immense volumes of water, leading to unimaginable tsunamis. Historically, many coastal regions have faced these powerful waves time and time again. Ancient rocks and sediments reveal layers of sand and marine fossils far inland, indicating that massive waves once roared ashore. While scientific instruments and tools now help us measure and record these events, for most of human history, people learned about tsunamis through storytelling. By piecing together accounts of long-gone disasters, we gain a deeper understanding of tsunami behavior and the conditions that set them loose.
One of the most striking aspects of tsunamis is their ability to cross entire ocean basins, affecting countries thousands of miles apart. Picture a stone dropped into a still pond, sending ripples outward in neat circles. A tsunami is like that, except on a monumental scale. After a major earthquake beneath the ocean, waves spread in all directions, often making landfall hours later on distant shores. Over time, technology has allowed scientists to detect and track these waves through sensors on the seafloor and satellites orbiting high above. Yet despite these innovations, warning people in time can still be challenging. Some tsunamis travel quickly, giving residents on nearby coastlines only minutes to escape. Others can take half a day to arrive, but people may not recognize the signs, leading them to underestimate the threat. Understanding how these waves form, behave, and travel is crucial if we want to reduce their deadly toll.
Throughout history, many tsunamis have left unforgettable scars. One particularly well-documented event occurred in 1946, when a tsunami triggered by an earthquake in Alaska’s Aleutian Islands crashed into the Hawaiian Islands hours later. It swept away structures, ruined farmland, and claimed many lives. Another colossal tsunami followed the massive 1960 Chilean earthquake, sending waves racing across the Pacific, reaching as far as Japan and New Zealand. These events forever changed our awareness of what the ocean could unleash. They also inspired scientists and governments to collaborate, building warning centers and monitoring networks. But as these chapters unfold, we will see that even with science and technology on our side, the world still struggles to handle the unpredictable nature of tsunamis. By exploring their causes, examining past disasters, and learning from cultural traditions, we can hopefully gain valuable insight into the best ways to prepare for, respond to, and survive future calamities.
Chapter 2: Diving Deep into Earth-Shaking Quakes and Their Surprising Tsunami Aftermaths.
When we hear the word tsunami, most of us immediately think of giant waves towering over coastlines. But the story often begins much deeper, in the darkness beneath the ocean floor where tectonic plates meet. At these boundaries, immense pressures build over years, decades, or even centuries. Eventually, something must give. Suddenly, the plates jerk into a new position, releasing energy equivalent to hundreds or thousands of atomic bombs. This violent motion shifts segments of the seabed vertically, launching water into motion. Such vertical shifts are key to tsunami formation: without this sudden upward or downward movement, the ocean’s surface would remain calm. Once that powerful jolt lifts the water, it triggers a chain reaction. Although the initial disturbance may seem small, the resulting waves can stretch across miles of open ocean. As these waves travel into shallower coastal waters, friction with the seabed slows them down, squeezing their energy upward and forming towering walls of water.
Two particularly historic examples highlight the scale of tsunami-generating earthquakes: the 1946 Aleutian event and the 1960 Chilean earthquake. In 1946, a magnitude 8.6 quake ruptured a segment of the Aleutian Trench. Although the earthquake’s tremors lasted only a few moments, the resulting tsunami was gigantic. It reduced the iconic Scotch Cap Lighthouse to rubble and swept away all five Coast Guardsmen stationed there. The waves then traveled across the Pacific, slamming into Hawaii and beyond. Nearly a decade and a half later, in 1960, the world witnessed the largest earthquake ever recorded, originating off the coast of Chile. Measuring a staggering magnitude 9.5, this quake unleashed colossal tsunami waves that roared across the Pacific Ocean, devastating areas in Chile, Hawaii, Japan, and other nations. The massive destruction and fatalities sparked widespread research, leading scientists and governments to establish better warning systems and protocols to reduce future loss of life.
Beyond these major earthquakes, countless smaller events have also triggered tsunamis throughout history. Even moderate-sized quakes can generate waves if the conditions are right. The reasons can be subtle and complex. Some fault lines produce tsunami earthquakes, where the shaking on land may feel modest, but the vertical movement under the ocean floor is enormous. In these scenarios, people might not realize that a dangerous wave is racing their way. Such surprises highlight how tricky it is to rely on instinct alone. Instead, scientific analyses of earthquake data, seafloor mapping, and historical tsunami records guide our understanding. By comparing patterns from different events, researchers attempt to predict how certain faults might behave in the future, helping communities prepare. Still, predicting the exact timing and size of a tsunami is exceedingly difficult, reminding us that nature’s power is as unpredictable as it is immense.
The scientific community continues to refine its grasp on the link between earthquakes and tsunamis. Today, seismologists use networks of sensors placed around the globe to detect the vibrations caused by earthquakes. Advanced modeling software helps them estimate how much of the seafloor might have uplifted or dropped. Buoys and deep-ocean pressure sensors track waves as they move. The result is a better, but not perfect, picture of unfolding tsunami threats. These advancements have saved countless lives, but challenges remain. False alarms can erode trust, while missed warnings can prove catastrophic. Understanding the relationship between quakes and tsunamis demands constant scientific vigilance. As we press forward, we learn from past mistakes and from cultures that have long dealt with such threats. In the following chapters, we will delve into how tsunamis are not limited to the open ocean, how cultural narratives guide research, and how preparing communities can make all the difference.
Chapter 3: Exploring Unusual Freshwater Tsunamis and Hidden Dangers Beyond the Ocean’s Shore.
Most people naturally associate tsunamis with vast oceans, salty spray, and seaside horizons. But tsunamis aren’t always ocean-bound. Freshwater tsunamis can strike lakes, fjords, and even massive rivers, surprising communities that would never expect such monstrous waves. Although relatively rare compared to their oceanic counterparts, these events can be just as destructive. Imagine a peaceful lakeside village suddenly confronted by a wall of water racing toward its shores. The cause might be a colossal landslide plummeting into the lake’s depths, displacing water on a terrifying scale. Such occurrences remind us that any large body of water, given the right trigger, can produce a tsunami-like wave. In these freshwater environments, the triggers can range from collapsing canyon walls to volcanic activity near lake basins. For locals who’ve never considered the possibility, the shock of a freshwater tsunami can be overwhelming, leaving them puzzled about what went wrong and how to avoid tragedy in the future.
One example of an ancient freshwater tsunami can be traced back some 50,000 years at Lake Tahoe in California, where a massive landslide tumbled into the lake, generating a 330-foot-high wave. More recently, in 2015, the Taan Fjord in Alaska experienced a freshwater tsunami unleashed by a huge landslide, producing waves up to 630 feet tall—twice the height of the Statue of Liberty. These events provide remarkable evidence that freshwater basins are capable of unleashing truly colossal waves. Yet, scientific studies on freshwater tsunamis remain comparatively limited. Since oceanic tsunamis are more frequent and affect more densely populated coastlines, much of our research and preparedness focuses on saltwater events. Unfortunately, this means that communities near large lakes, fjords, and reservoirs might be caught off-guard. With climate change altering landscapes and retreating glaciers, the conditions for landslides are increasing, raising the odds of freshwater tsunamis in certain vulnerable regions.
The scarcity of research on freshwater tsunamis is a problem we can’t ignore. Landslides can occur suddenly, without the subtle hints that often precede oceanic tsunamis triggered by earthquakes. These sudden collapses of unstable slopes or melting permafrost cliffs can send massive chunks of earth directly into a calm lake, instantly creating mountainous waves. With many people unaware of these possibilities, the results can be catastrophic. Unlike regions that know they must prepare for oceanic tsunamis, communities near lakes or reservoirs might not have warning sirens, evacuation drills, or educational programs. Too often, the first sign that something is amiss is the terrifying roar of water rushing inland. Investigating and mapping areas prone to landslides, developing early detection systems, and sharing knowledge from other parts of the world can help. By broadening our scope, we improve our ability to protect human lives wherever tsunamis might strike.
As we continue our journey through the multifaceted world of tsunamis, freshwater events serve as a reminder that these disasters defy easy boundaries. Nature doesn’t follow neat rules that limit certain hazards to certain settings. A tsunami can emerge from unexpected places, challenging our assumptions. Understanding these diverse triggers and environments is crucial. Just as scientists piece together stories of oceanic events from geological layers and historical records, they must also study ancient lakebed sediments, analyze slope stability, and conduct simulations of potential landslides. By refining our understanding of freshwater tsunamis, we stand a better chance of safeguarding communities that might otherwise remain unaware and unprepared. Next, we’ll turn our attention to another valuable source of knowledge—one that doesn’t come from instruments or textbooks, but from the oral traditions and mythologies passed down through generations in communities that have long coexisted with the ocean’s might.
Chapter 4: Unlocking Ancient Wisdom—How Indigenous Oral Histories Reveal Tsunami Secrets.
Long before modern science developed instruments to detect deep-sea tremors or track waves via satellites, people relied on stories. For centuries, indigenous communities living along coasts learned to recognize the ocean’s subtle hints. They recorded devastating tsunamis in the form of myths, legends, songs, and rituals. These oral histories, passed from one generation to the next, often describe monstrous beings that cause the sea to rise and swallow the land, or heroic figures who warn their people to flee. To outsiders, these tales might appear as simple folklore or superstition. However, researchers have discovered that many such narratives contain kernels of historical truth. Ancient storytellers used vivid imagery and characters to encode real events, ensuring the memory of past tsunamis survived. Today, scientists increasingly rely on these narratives to pinpoint when and where major tsunamis occurred centuries or even millennia ago, well before written records and modern measurement tools existed.
Consider the Maori people of New Zealand, who share stories of the taniwha, powerful water creatures lurking near perilous shorelines. These beings are said to cause flooding and destruction, much like a tsunami’s violent surge. Centuries ago, a Maori chief named Potiki Roa performed a ceremony that, according to tradition, ended in a massive wave washing sand and seawater inland. At first glance, this story might seem purely mythical. Yet geological evidence now suggests that between 1470 and 1510, a large tsunami struck the central western shores of New Zealand, burying coastal landscapes under layers of oceanic sand. Other indigenous groups around the Pacific Rim and beyond have similarly preserved accounts of giant waves in their oral traditions. These narratives often contain practical lessons, such as recognizing unusual ocean withdrawal as a warning sign, or moving to high ground after a quake, ensuring that future generations remain cautious and informed.
By comparing these ancient stories with geological data, scientists can piece together timelines of past tsunami activity. Layers of sand found deep inland might match the time period suggested by a tribal narrative. Charred remains of burnt villages could align with tales of communities forced to rebuild after a giant wave wiped out their homes. This blending of indigenous knowledge and modern science enriches our understanding. It connects us to people who faced these disasters long ago and found ways to survive. Moreover, it helps modern researchers identify coastal areas that have experienced tsunamis repeatedly over centuries. By doing so, we can assess which regions might be hit again and encourage local governments and communities to invest in preparedness efforts. Oral histories remind us that tsunamis aren’t new phenomena; they have repeatedly challenged human communities, and each culture has found ways to remember and learn from these catastrophic events.
As scientists and local elders collaborate, they bridge the gap between high-tech geology and age-old storytelling. This partnership underscores the importance of respecting indigenous perspectives and cultural heritage. The wisdom contained in these narratives, when verified through scientific methods, can help guide decision-makers. Policy planners and engineers can use these historical insights to craft better evacuation routes, build stronger shelters, and develop educational materials tailored to local traditions. By embracing these stories, we gain a more complete picture of tsunami risks. We also foster mutual respect and trust between scientists and communities. Moving forward, we’ll see that while learning from the past is critical, we must also invest in modern solutions. Tsunami warning systems, education programs, and strategic planning can all reduce harm. But as we’ll discover in the next chapters, implementing these measures and ensuring they work as intended is a challenge that must not be underestimated.
Chapter 5: Examining the High-Tech Watchtowers—Advances and Shortfalls in Tsunami Warning Systems.
When disaster looms on the horizon, a few minutes’ notice can mean the difference between life and death. Tsunami warning systems are like invisible sentinels, scanning the ocean for hints of danger. They rely on an international network of seismic stations, deep-ocean pressure sensors, and coastal tide gauges to detect and measure waves. Once a suspicious event is recorded—like a large undersea earthquake—alerts may be sent out, urging people in coastal areas to evacuate. Over the years, these systems have become more sophisticated. For instance, the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center, established after devastating events in the mid-20th century, now shares data rapidly, so countries across the Pacific can coordinate their responses. Ideally, when a tsunami is detected, coastal residents receive warnings through sirens, phone alerts, and broadcast messages, guiding them toward safety. But as we’ve seen in history, having a system in place doesn’t guarantee a perfect outcome.
The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami is a heartbreaking example of what happens when no effective warning system is in place. The massive earthquake that struck off the coast of Sumatra unleashed waves that traveled across the Indian Ocean, catching millions of people unaware. In a matter of hours, more than 200,000 lives were lost. The world watched in horror and realized that relying solely on the Pacific’s warning network was inadequate. In response, nations banded together to create a more global system. They installed sensors, expanded detection networks, and improved communication channels. Yet, even advanced technology can fail or mislead. Tsunami waves vary greatly in height and intensity depending on undersea topography and coastal features. Sometimes, warnings overestimate the danger, causing unnecessary evacuations. Other times, they underestimate the size of the approaching wave, leading to chaos and tragedy. Achieving accurate, reliable warnings remains a complex challenge.
Japan, a country that has experienced many tsunamis over centuries, invested heavily in warning systems and infrastructure. By the early 2000s, it had some of the world’s most advanced tsunami detection and alert mechanisms. Yet in 2011, when a massive earthquake unleashed a devastating tsunami along Japan’s northeastern coast, the official forecasts underestimated the wave heights. Many residents believed they were safe, some sheltered in buildings not tall enough to withstand the incoming surge. The resulting disaster claimed over 20,000 lives and caused a nuclear crisis at the Fukushima Daiichi plant. This tragedy taught the world a painful lesson: no matter how sophisticated the system, nature can still surprise us. Warning systems must be paired with realistic planning, updated hazard assessments, and well-practiced evacuation strategies. Technology alone cannot safeguard communities if the assumptions behind the forecasts are flawed or if the public doesn’t know how to respond quickly.
We’ve come a long way since early tsunami warnings were shouted person-to-person or delivered by scattered telegraphs. Today’s cutting-edge systems gather immense amounts of data and run complex simulations to predict wave arrival times and heights. But these systems are only as good as the information and models behind them. Continuous improvement is essential. Scientists refine their calculations based on new earthquake data, while engineers look for ways to make sensors more reliable. Governments seek better ways to ensure that warnings reach everyone, including visitors and communities with limited communication access. Coastal managers must regularly test evacuation routes and practice drills with residents to make sure warnings are not just heard, but acted upon quickly. In the coming chapters, we’ll look at another key aspect—education and preparedness. Because even the best warning in the world can fail if people do not know what to do when the alarm sounds.
Chapter 6: Equipping Minds and Bodies—The Crucial Role of Tsunami Education and Evacuation Training.
Knowledge can be a powerful life-saving tool. Even if we have the most accurate tsunami warnings, that information is useless if people do not understand what it means or what actions they must take. Education and training programs aim to fix this gap. They teach communities how to recognize early signs of a tsunami—like the sudden retreat of the sea or the shaking of the ground—and how to quickly move to higher ground. Schools incorporate tsunami drills, ensuring children know the safest evacuation paths. Local governments place clear signs directing people to elevated zones. These efforts transform ordinary citizens into active participants in their own survival. Without such preparation, people might freeze in disbelief or confusion when confronted by an approaching wall of water. With education, they can react swiftly, improving their odds of surviving the worst that the ocean can unleash.
Two true stories highlight the power of tsunami education. In Japan’s history, we find the legendary figure of Goryo Hamaguchi, who, sensing an incoming tsunami after an earthquake, set his rice sheaves aflame to attract villagers uphill. His quick thinking saved many lives. This centuries-old tale teaches that understanding natural signs and acting without hesitation can spare an entire community. Another, more recent example comes from the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. On a beach in Thailand, an English schoolgirl named Tilly Smith recognized the odd behavior of the ocean from her geography lessons. Instead of ignoring it, she warned her parents and others to leave the beach. In a region where countless lives were lost, not a single person on that beach perished. Tilly’s education and courage underscore how a lesson learned in a classroom, miles away, can make a life-or-death difference.
In places like American Samoa, officials have used real-life training to prepare communities. A week before a 2009 tsunami struck, children had finished a tsunami preparedness program. When the ground shook and the sea acted strangely, they knew exactly what to do. They ran uphill to escape the waves racing toward their school. Thanks to this foresight, hundreds of children’s lives were saved. This example demonstrates that preparedness drills are not just theoretical exercises. They are practical skills that can be remembered and applied under stress. Communities worldwide have adopted similar strategies, from small Pacific islands to major coastal cities. By integrating tsunami awareness into school curriculums, community workshops, and public information campaigns, societies become more resilient. Over time, as more people learn the signs, remember the escape routes, and trust the warning systems, the number of tsunami survivors can steadily rise.
Still, challenges remain. Not every community has the resources to implement thorough training programs or maintain evacuation infrastructure. Differences in language, culture, and education levels mean that no single approach works for everyone. Some people worry that frequent drills might lead to complacency or confusion if warnings become too routine. Others fear that newcomers or tourists won’t understand the local evacuation signs. Despite these hurdles, the overall trend is encouraging. Organizations like UNESCO and national agencies collaborate with local leaders to tailor messages and methods to each region’s unique circumstances. The more people know, the better prepared they are to react instinctively and calmly when a tsunami threat arises. Training and education offer a path toward empowerment. In the next chapter, we will broaden our perspective to understand how climate change and evolving coastal landscapes might alter the frequency and scale of these disasters, demanding ever more vigilance.
Chapter 7: Facing a Changing World—Climate Shifts, Coastal Transformations, and Future Tsunami Challenges.
As our planet warms, ice melts, and weather patterns shift, we face a new era of uncertainty. Climate change influences every corner of the Earth, including the processes that can generate tsunamis. For example, in regions where glaciers once anchored steep valleys, their retreat leaves unstable rock faces prone to landslides. When these enormous chunks of land collapse into fjords, lakes, or even coastal waters, they may produce giant waves. Rising sea levels also mean that even moderate tsunamis can push water farther inland, endangering more people and property. Meanwhile, coastal development places homes, businesses, and critical infrastructure closer to the ocean’s edge, increasing the stakes. With more people living in low-lying coastal zones, the potential casualties and economic damage from tsunamis grow. Confronting these future challenges requires a combination of scientific research, smart planning, and continued education to prevent coastal communities from becoming even more vulnerable.
Scientists are working hard to understand how changing environmental conditions might affect tsunami frequency and magnitude. As glaciers melt and mountainsides become more unstable, the threat of landslide-triggered waves might increase in certain regions. In places like Alaska, Greenland, and Norway’s fjords, warming temperatures alter permafrost layers that once acted like natural cement for steep slopes. Without that stability, rockfalls become more common, raising the possibility of freshwater tsunamis. Along tropical coasts, coral reefs that once helped absorb wave energy may shrink due to warmer oceans and pollution, allowing tsunamis to strike with greater force. By monitoring climate trends, geological formations, and oceanic conditions, scientists aim to forecast where tsunamis might occur more frequently. Armed with this knowledge, policymakers and engineers can consider tougher building codes, better coastal defenses, and more rigorous evacuation plans, recognizing that tomorrow’s tsunami landscape may look very different from what we’ve seen before.
In some regions, adaptation strategies might be required, such as building elevated roads, raised shelters, and artificial barriers that can slow an incoming wave. Replanting mangroves and restoring wetlands may help dampen tsunami energy before it hits coastal communities. Engineers might design buildings that can withstand powerful currents or at least allow people enough time to escape. The integration of traditional knowledge with modern science will remain important, ensuring that cultural values and historical lessons guide planning. Economic measures, like offering incentives for responsible coastal development or relocating critical infrastructure away from the shoreline, can also play a role. The challenges ahead are complex. People will need to work across disciplines and national borders to share data and coordinate responses. Tsunamis, after all, do not recognize political boundaries. They demand that humans come together, combining our best ideas and tools to protect one another.
Our response to tomorrow’s tsunamis will depend heavily on the actions we take today. While we cannot halt every earthquake or landslide, we can invest in research, improve warning systems, and nurture a culture of readiness. As coastal communities become more aware of the evolving risks, they’ll find ways to reduce their exposure—perhaps by not building too close to the high-tide line, or by creating buffer zones of natural vegetation. By considering the future impacts of climate change, we stay one step ahead of potential catastrophes. Planning, preparation, and education represent a pathway toward resilience. Although tsunamis remain fearsome expressions of nature’s might, our understanding of them has grown enormously. And as we embrace a future shaped by environmental change, we can learn from history, indigenous knowledge, scientific advancements, and shared experiences around the globe. This collective wisdom can guide us, even as we face uncertainties on the horizon.
All about the Book
Explore the thrilling world of tsunamis with ‘Tsunami’ by James Goff and Walter Dudley. This comprehensive guide delves into the science, history, and impact of tsunamis, making it essential reading for anyone interested in natural disasters.
James Goff and Walter Dudley are esteemed scientists renowned for their expertise in geophysics and oceanography, bringing a wealth of knowledge and research to understanding tsunamis.
Geologists, Environmental Scientists, Emergency Management Officials, Urban Planners, Marine Biologists
Surfing, Beachcombing, Environmental Conservation, Photography of Natural Disasters, Volunteering in Disaster Relief
Natural Disaster Preparedness, Climate Change Impact, Coastal Community Safety, Public Awareness of Tsunami Risks
Understanding the power of tsunamis empowers us to mitigate their impact and protect our communities.
Dr. Jane Goodall, Bill Nye, David Attenborough
National Book Award for Science, American Library Association Outstanding Book Award, Royal Society Science Book Prize
1. What causes tsunamis to form in the ocean? #2. How do tsunamis differ from regular sea waves? #3. What historical events highlight the impact of tsunamis? #4. How are tsunamis detected and measured reliably? #5. What warnings can save lives during a tsunami? #6. How do tsunamis affect coastal communities economically? #7. What are the key signs that a tsunami is coming? #8. How do geological changes trigger tsunami waves? #9. What role do underwater earthquakes play in tsunami formation? #10. How can individuals prepare for a potential tsunami? #11. What strategies are effective for tsunami disaster response? #12. How does the shape of the coastline influence tsunamis? #13. What are the long-term effects of tsunamis on ecosystems? #14. How can we improve our understanding of tsunamis? #15. What contributions do scientists make to tsunami research? #16. How do tsunamis travel across ocean basins globally? #17. What cultural impacts do tsunamis have on communities? #18. How does climate change potentially influence tsunami dynamics? #19. What lessons have been learned from past tsunami disasters? #20. How can technology enhance tsunami prediction methods?
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